Ancient China

Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou Dynasties

(c. 21st century – 771 BC)

I Early State Formatio

During the Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou period, China experienced the initial stages of state formation. Monarchical power was strengthened in dynastic changes. After moving the capital to Yin, the Shang Dynasty prospered. T Through the investment of lands to be ruled by a number of lords, Western Zhou kings consolidated their power and expanded their area of influence.

The political system that took shape during this period fostered economic and cultural growth and laid a strong foundation for Chinese society in the ensuing dynasties. Nevertheless, in the late Western Zhou, decline in monarchical rule gave rise to intense social conflicts and change became inevitable.

Bronze Ding (food container)
Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)

“Li” Bronze Gui (food container)
Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Wu’s reign

“Yi Hou Ze” Bronze Gui (food container)
Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Kang’s reign

“Yan Hou” Bronze Yu (food container)
Early Western Zhou Dynasty

Bronze Jue (wine vessel)
Erlitou Culture
Unearthed at Erlitou, Yanshi, Henan Province, 1984
Bronze Li (food container) and Gu (wine vessel)
Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Bronze Ding (food container), Jia (wine vessel), and Jue (wine vessel)

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Bronze Ding (food container) and Jia (wine vessel)

c. 15th century BC
Jade Ge (dagger-axe)

c. 15th century BC
Bronze Ding (food container) and Zun (wine vessel)
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign

Bronze Ge (dagger-axe) Inlaid with Turquoise

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Jade Ge (dagger-axe)
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
“Li” Bronze Gui (food container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Wu’s reign
“Lai” Bronze Pan (water container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Xuan’s reign
“Qin” Bronze Gui (food container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Cheng’s reign

“Yi Hou Ze” Bronze Gui (food container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Kang’s reign
“Yan Hou” Bronze Yu (food container)

Early Western Zhou Dynasty
“Jin Hou Bo Ma” Bronze Hu (wine vessel)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Jade Pendant

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
“Kang Hou” Bronze Axe

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Cheng’s reign
“Kang Hou” Bronze Jue (wine vessel)
Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Cheng’s reign

II Economy

During the Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou period, agriculture was the primary economic sector and was managed quite well. A division of labour by profession had already emerged in the handicraft industry in the Erlitou Culture. In the Shang Dynasty, the scale of handicraft production expanded and trade increased. During the Western Zhou, the government controlled both sectors. There was a more elaborate division of labour in handicraft industry. The main production categories included bronze-casting, jade and stone work, ceramics, textiles, and lacquerware.

Ox Oracle Bone with Inscription
Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)

“Zhao” Bronze You (wine vessel)
Early Western Zhou Dynasty

“Fu Hao” Bronze Zun (wine vessel) in the Shape of Owl
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign

“Hou Mu Xin” Bronze Gong (wine vessel)
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign

“Fu Hao” Bronze Double Fangyi (wine vessel)
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign

“Fu Hao” Triple Bronze Yan (food container)
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign

Jade Male-female Figure
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign

Jade Dragon, Phoenix, and Ornament in the Shape of Dragon and Phoenix
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign

Jade Necklace and Pendant
Late Western Zhou Dynasty

Jade Figure
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign

Stone and Bone Spades

Erlitou Culture
StoneShovel

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Stone Axe

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Stone Knife and Sickle and Mussel Shell Sickle

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Stone Knife

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Stone Sickle

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Mussel Shell Sickle

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Stone Sickle

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Pick-axe

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Bronze Spade

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Spades

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Stone Axe, Two-holed Stone Knife, Bone Chisel, and Mussel Shell Sickle

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Stone Axe and Bone Spades

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Bone Spade

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Bronze Axe

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Bronze Spade and Chopper

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Ox Oracle Bone with Inscription

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Malachite (sample)
Charcoal

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Slag

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Pottery Crucible

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Pottery Crucible

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Pottery Mould

Lower Xiajiadian Culture (c. 2000–1500 BC)
Erlitou Pottery Mould with Animal Design
Stone Outer Mould for Bronze Axe

Erlitou Culture
Pottery Outer Mould for Bronze Li (food container)

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Pottery Mould for Bronze Knife

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Pottery Mould for Bronze Arrowheads

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Pottery Inner Mould for Bronze Chopper

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Bronze Yue (battle-axe) with Iron Blade

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
“Fu Hao” Bronze Yue (battle-axe)
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign

Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze Jue (wine vessel)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze Gu (wine vessel)

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Bronze Gu (wine vessel)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze Jia (wine vessel)

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Bronze Jia (wine vessel)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze You (wine vessel)
Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze He (wine vessel)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze Hu (wine vessel)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze Lei (wine vessel)

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Bronze Bu (wine vessel)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze Li (food container)

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Bronze Gui (food container)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze Yu (food container)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze Mirrors

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze Gong (wine vessel)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Kang’s reign
Duck-shaped Bronze Zun (wine vessel)

Early Western Zhou Dynasty
Bronze Lei (wine vessel)

Early Western Zhou Dynasty
“Li” Bronze Fangyi (wine vessel)

Middle Western Zhou Dynasty
“Jin Lin” Bronze Ding (food container)

Middle Western Zhou Dynasty
Proto-porcelain Jar

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Proto-porcelain Zun (vessel)

Early Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–14th centuries BC)
Proto-porcelain Ewer

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Proto-porcelain Dou (container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Mu’s reign
Proto-porcelain Dou (container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Proto-porcelain Zun (vessel)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Jade Yue (battle-axe)

Erlitou Culture
Jade Cong (tube)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Jade Gui (food container)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Jade Knife, Axe, and Fish-shaped Gravers

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign

Jade Eagle and Pigeon

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Jade Elephant, Tiger, and Horse and Stone Water Buffalo

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Jade Qi (battle-axe), Axe, and Ge (dagger-axe)

Early Western Zhou Dynasty
Jade Gravers in the Shapes of Dragon and Fish

Early Western Zhou Dynasty
Jade Figure, Dragon, and Ornamental Plaque

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Jade Birds, Cicada, and Fishes

Early Western Zhou Dynasty
Jade Tiger, Unidentified Animal, Ox, Rabbit, and Silkworm

Early Western Zhou Dynasty
Pottery Spindle Whorls

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Jade Silkworm

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Piece with Remains of Plain-weave Silk

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Gu (wine vessel) with Fabric Remains

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Shang Silk (replica)

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Silk Fabric and Embroidery Impressions on Dirt

Middle Western Zhou Dynasty
Lacquer Fragments

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Lacquer Impressions on Dirt

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Lacquer Lei (vessel)

Early Western Zhou Dynasty
Whale Bone

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Seashells

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Money Cowries

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Arabian Cowries

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bronze E (horse collar)

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Chariot Beam Ornaments

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Wei (axle endpiece)

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Bridle Ornaments

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Biao (bit end)

Bronze Biao (bit end)
Bronze Yang (horse forehead ornament)

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Yang (horse forehead ornament)

Middle Western Zhou Dynasty
Bronze Biao (bit end)

Middle Western Zhou Dynasty
Bronze Xian (bit)

Middle Western Zhou Dynasty
Bronze Chariot Ornament

Middle Western Zhou Dynasty
Bronze Luan (chariot bell)
Middle Western Zhou Dynasty
Bronze Wei (axle endpiece)

Middle Western Zhou Dynasty

III Culture

Chinese characters form one of the oldest written languages in the world. Reaching maturity in the late Shang, this unique writing system has been in use for thousands of years. Abundant written materials about the politics, economy, and culture of the Shang survive today. In the Western Zhou, the rulers used an elaborate ritual system to demonstrate and maintain a rigid hierarchy. This system had far-reaching implications for ancient Chinese society.

“Zuoce Ban” Bronze Turtle
Last years of Shang Dynasty

Ox Bone with Inscription about Ganzhi
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Di Yi or Di Xin’s reign

Stone Qing (percussion instrument) with Tiger Design
Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)

“Guoji Zibai” Bronze Pan (water container)
Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Xuan’s reign

“Li” Zun (wine vessel) in the Shape of Foal
Middle Western Zhou Dynasty

“Song” Bronze Hu (wine vessel)
Late Western Zhou Dynasty

Pottery Jar

Taosi Culture, c. 20th century BC
Jade Ge (dagger-axe)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Tortoise Plastron with Inscription

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bone with Inscription

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Tortoise Plastron with Inscription

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bone with Inscription

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bone with Inscription

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Bone with Inscription

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), 6th year of King Diyi or Dixin’s reign
Bone with Inscription
Early Western Zhou Dynasty

“Ge Bo” Bronze Gui (food container)

Middle Western Zhou Dynasty
“Bu Qi” Bronze Lid for Gui (food container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Xuan’s reign
Ox Bone with Inscription about Solar Eclipse

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), Kings Zu Geng and Zu Jia’s reign
Ox Bone with Inscription about Rainbow

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Tortoise Plastron with Inscription about Rain

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), King Wu Ding’s reign
Ox Scapula with Inscription from an Almanac (rubbing)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC), Kings Zu Geng and Zu Jia’s reign
Pottery Xun (wind instrument)

Erlitou Culture
Pottery Xun (wind instrument)

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Stone Qing (percussion instrument)
Erlitou Culture

Bronze Drum

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Set of Bronze Nao (percussion instrument)

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Zhong (percussion instrument)

Late Western Zhou Dynasty
Set of “Chang Si” Bronze Zhong (percussion instrument)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Mu’s reign
“Chang Si” Bronze Ding (food container)

“Chang Si” Bronze Ding (food container)
“Chang Si” Bronze Gui (food container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Mu’s reign
“Yu” Bronze Ding (food container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Li’s reign
“Wu Qi” Bronze Gui (food container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Li’s reign
Bronze Lid for Gui (food container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Li’s reign
“Xiaochen Zhai” Bronze Gui (food container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC), King Cheng’s reign

IV Ethnic Cultures

During the Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou period, ethnic groups outside the Central Plains culture were also in important stages of the development process. Distinct ethnic groups formed unique cultures and had frequent contact with the Central Plains.

Bronze Mirror
Qijia Culture (c. 2000 BC–?)

Pottery Jar
Qijia Culture (c. 2000 BC–?)

Bronze Zun (wine vessel) with Dragon and Tiger Design
Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)

Bronze Zun (wine vessel) with Four Rams
Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)

Bronze Human Head
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)

Bronze Mask
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)

Bronze Knife with Bell Handle

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Knives

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Bronze Ding (food container)

Lower Xiajiadian Culture (c. 2000–1500 BC)
Pottery Li (cooking vessel)

Lower Xiajiadian Culture (c. 2000–1500 BC)
Stone Arrowheads

Xituanshan Culture (c. 1000 BC)
Pottery Jars

Xituanshan Culture (c. 1000 BC)
Stone Axe and Knife with Two Holes

Xituanshan Culture (c. 1000 BC)
Bronze Ding (food container)

Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)
Copper Drill, Knife, and Awl

Qijia Culture (c. 2000 BC–?)
Bronze Mirror

Qijia Culture (c. 2000 BC–?)
Bronze Axe

Qijia Culture (c. 2000 BC–?)
Gold Earrings

Qijia Culture (c. 2000 BC–?)
Pottery Jar
Xindian Culture (c. 1000 BC)

Pottery Jar

Xindian Culture (c. 1000 BC)
Pottery Li (cooking vessel)

Siwa Culture (c. 1300–700 BC)
Pottery Jar

Kayue Culture (c. 1300–600 BC)
Painted Pottery Jar in the Shape of Human Figure

Siba Culture (c. 2000–1600 BC)
Gold Earrings

Siba Culture (c. 2000–1600 BC)
Bronze Ornament with Openwork Design

Siba Culture (c. 2000–1600 BC)
Stone Ornament

Siba Culture (c. 2000–1600 BC)
Pottery Jar

Siba Culture (c. 2000–1600 BC)
Bronze Gu (wine vessel)

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Jia (wine vessel)

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Pottery Zun (vessel), Dou (food container), and Jar

Yueshi Culture (c. 1900–1600 BC)
Hard Pottery Jar with Impressed Pattern

Maqiao Culture
Proto-porcelain Zun (vessel)
Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century–771 BC)

Bronze Ding (food container) with Dragon-shaped Flat Legs

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Nao (percussion instrument) with Tiger Design

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Bu (wine vessel)

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Hard Pottery Dou (food container) and Cup with Impressed Patterns

Late Shang Dynasty (c. 14th–11th centuries BC)
Pottery Dou (food container) and Jar

Fubin Culture
Stone Ge (dagger-axe) and Axe

Fubin Culture
Jade Zhang (tablet)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Spearhead

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Zun (wine vessel)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Bronze Lei (wine vessel)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Pottery Gui (water or wine vessel)

Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)
Pottery Bowl
Shang Dynasty (c. 16th–11th centuries BC)

Finds from Middle Western Zhou Tomb of Bi Ji

In 2004, a burial ground was discovered north of Hengshui, Jiangxian, Shanxi Province. Excavations conducted over the years show that this burial ground belonged to Peng, a state that is not recorded in historical documents and has been forgotten for nearly 3,000 years. The tombs, dating to the early-to-late Western Zhou, demonstrate the rise and fall of Peng. Among them, the most luxurious are the middle Western Zhou tombs of Peng Bo—the state ruler—and his wife Bi Ji. Bronze ritual vessels, jades, and burial canopies unearthed from the tomb of Bi Ji were made in fine craftsmanship and attract special attention.

Set of Bronze Zhong (percussion instrument)

Set of Bronze Zhong (percussion instrument)
Bronze Ding (food container)
Bronze Li (food container)
Bronze Yu (food container)
Bronze Zhi (wine vessel)
Bronze He (wine vessel)
Bronze Hu (wine vessel)

Bronze Pan (water container)
Bronze Yan (food container)
Bronze Gui (food container)
Silkworm-shaped Jade Necklace
Jade Hairpin
Jade Jue (slit ring)
Jade Ge (dagger-axe) and Gui (tablet)

Mussel Shell Ge (dagger-axe)
Jade Pendant
Impression of a Burial Canopy