I. Prehistoric Times II. Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou Dynasties III. Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods IV. Qin and Han Dynasties V. Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties VI. Sui, Tang, and the Five Dynasties VII. Liao, Song, Xixia, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties VIII. Ming and Qing Dynasties

Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties

220–589 AD

I. Coexistence of Multi-ethnic Regimes and National Integration



After the fall of the Eastern Han Dynasty, three kingdoms—Wei, Shu, and Wu—dominated China. Following a brief period of unification in the Western Jin Dynasty, the country entered an era marked by coexisting multi-ethnic regimes. The south was controlled by a succession of powerful families ruling over the Eastern Jin and the Southern Dynasties. Ethnic rulers governed the north, establishing the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Northern Dynasties. There was unprecedented ethnic interaction during this period, laying the foundation for a unified multi-ethnic nation in the subsequent Sui and Tang Dynasties.
Bronze Crossbow Trigger Mechanism
Three Kingdoms, Wei, 2nd year of Zhengshi Era ( 241AD )
Bronze Seal with Inscription
Western Jin Dynasty ( 265-316AD )
Stone Epitaph for Yuan Yu
Northern Wei Dynasty, 2nd year of Jingming Era (501 AD)
Pottery Attendant
Northern Wei Dynasty ( 386-534AD )
Bronze Seals
Bronze Seals
“Han Xing” Bronze Coin
Sixteen Kingdoms, Chenghan ( 304-347AD )
“Da Xia Zhen Xing” Bronze Coin
Sixteen Kingdoms, Xia ( 407-431AD )
Bronze Ruler
Northern Wei Dynasty ( 386-534AD )
Pottery Warrior on Horseback
Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)
Pottery Civil Official and Warrior
Northern Dynasties (386–581AD)
Stone Epitaph for General Dugu Xin
Northern Zhou Dynasty, 1st reign year (557 AD)
Pottery Mortar and Pestle, Treadle Pestle, Winnowing Pan, and Sieve
Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Pottery Figures

    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Pottery Figures and Ox Cart
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Stone Epitaph for Yuan Yu

    Northern Wei Dynasty, 2nd year of Jingming Era (501 AD)

  • Painted Pottery Figures and Warrior on Horseback
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534AD)

  • Pottery Figures
    Northern Dynasties (386–581AD)

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  • Pottery Warrior
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Bronze Seals
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Porcelain Figure and Cart
    Eastern Jin to Southern Dynasties (317–589 AD)

  • Porcelain Figure on Horseback
    Eastern Jin to Southern Dynasties (317–589 AD)

  • Tiger-shaped Bronze Tallies with Inscription

    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

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  • Bronze Seals
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Pottery Warrior on Horseback
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Warrior on Horseback
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Civil Official
    Northern Dynasties (386–581AD)

  • Pottery Civil Official and Warrior
    Northern Dynasties (386–581AD)

  • Stone Epitaph for General Dugu Xin
    Northern Zhou Dynasty, 1st reign year (557 AD)

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II. Economy



During the Three Kingdoms to the Southern and Northern Dynasties period, many regimes made efforts to restore an economy that had been ruined by successive wars. Deserted farmlands were recultivated, irrigation works were built, and new farming technologies were adopted. Continuous wars in the north resulted in frequent downturns in the economy. In contrast, the south was relatively peaceful. Large populations that moved south to evade war added to the labour force and introduced crops and farming methods from the north, thus stimulating economic growth in the south.
Celadon Pigpen and Chicken Coop
Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)
Sheep-shaped Celadon Candle Holder
Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)
Sheep-shaped Celadon Candle Holder
Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)
Celadon Incense Burner
Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)
Sheep-shaped Celadon Candle Holder
Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD)
Celadon Ewer with Dragon-shaped Handle and Chicken-head
Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)
Black-glazed Porcelain Ewer with Chicken-head Spout
Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD)
Celadon Spittoon with Printed Design
Southern Dynasties (420-589 AD)
Celadon Zun Container with Lotus Petal Design
Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

  • Brick Paintings with Agriculture Scenes (copies)
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Pottery Mortar and Pestle, Treadle Pestle, Winnowing Pan, and Sieve
    Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)
    Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

  • Bear-shaped Celadon Lamp
    Three Kingdoms, Wu, 1st year of Ganlu Era (265 AD)

  • Sheep-shaped Celadon Candle Holder
    Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Celadon Chamber Pot
    Three Kingdoms, Wu, 14th year of Chiwu Era (251 AD)

  • Lion-shaped Celadon Candle Holder
    Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Celadon Container
    Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Celadon Incense Burner
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Celadon Hunping (soul jar)
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Celadon Ewer with Chicken-head Spout

    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Celadon Jar
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Frog-shaped Celadon Water Jar
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Celadon Inkslab
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Sheep-shaped Celadon Candle Holder
    Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD)

  • Celadon Jar with Two Lugs
    Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420)

  • Celadon Basin
    Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD)

  • Celadon Ewer with Dragon-shaped Handle and Chicken-head
    Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)

     

  • Celadon Tray with Five Cups
    Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)

  • Deqing Kiln Tool
    Unearthed at Jiaoshan, Deqing, Zhejiang Province

  • Black-glazed Porcelain Ewer with Chicken-head Spout
    Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD)

  • Celadon Spittoon with Printed Design
    Southern Dynasties (420-589 AD)

  • Celadon Zun Container with Lotus Petal Design
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

III. Daily Life



In the nearly 400 years from the Three Kingdoms to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, waves of migration created opportunities for peoples from different regions to share their food, dress, and lifestyle. The Han people actively embraced different traditions and other ethnic peoples adopted Han customs as well. Daily life during this period incorporated Han cultural traditions with diverse ethnic practices.
Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)
Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)
Roof Tile-end with Inscription
Sixteen Kingdoms, Former Qin (351–394 AD)
Roof Tile-end with Inscription
Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)
Gilded Bronze Mirror with Sacred Animal Design
Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)
Celadon Inkslab with Ten Feet
Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)
Pottery Winged Cups
Three Kingdoms, Wei (220–265 AD)
Celadon Ewer with Chicken-head Spout
Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)
Celadon Cup and Saucer
Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)
Pottery Warrior in Xianbei Costume
Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)
Pottery Warrior in Xianbei Costume
Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)
Pottery Civil Official
Western Wei Dynasty (535–556 AD)
Pottery Female Figure
Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD)
Pottery Female Official with Longguan High Hat
Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)
Gold Hat Ornament in the Shape of Horse Head with Antlers
Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)
Bronze Plaque with Bird Design
Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)
Pottery Female Singer and Musicians
Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)
Pottery Musician Playing Pipa (string instrument)
Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)
Yellow-glazed Porcelain Flask with Music and Dance Scene
Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

  • Pottery Courtyard House
    Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Bricks with Inscriptions
    Sixteen Kingdoms, Later Zhao (319–350 AD)

  • Roof Tile-end with Inscription
    Sixteen Kingdoms, Former Qin (351–394 AD)

  • Celadon Drainage Pipe
    Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)

  • Roof Tile with Inscription
    Tuyuhun Kingdom (4th–7th centuries AD)

  • Roof Tile-end with Inscription
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Pottery An （table）
    Three Kingdoms, Wei (220–265 AD)

  • Pottery Figure
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Bronze Mirror with Legendary Figures and Animals
    Three Kingdoms, Wei (220–265 AD)

  • Bronze Mirror with Legendary Figures and Animals
    Three Kingdoms, Wu, 5th year of Yong’an Era (262 AD)

  • Gilded Bronze Mirror with Sacred Animal Design
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Celadon Incense Burner
    Jin Dynasty (265–420 AD)

  • Celadon Candle Holder in the Shape of Bixie (mythical beast)
    Jin Dynasty (265–420 AD)

  • Celadon Inkslab with Ten Feet
    Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)

  • Celadon Spittoon with Stamped Pattern
    Eastern Jin Dynasty to Southern Dynasties (317–589 AD)

  • Celadon Incense Burner
    Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)

  • Celadon Candle Holder
    Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)

  • Bronze Mirror with Inscription and Sacred Animal Design
    Sixteen Kingdoms, Western Liang (400–421 AD)

  • Brick Paintings with Banquet and Culinary Scenes (copies)
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Pottery Stove
    Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Bronze Cauldron
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Pottery Bowl and Spoon
    Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Bronze Ladles
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Pottery Bowls
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

  • Pottery Winged Cups
    Three Kingdoms, Wei (220–265 AD)

  • Pottery Zun (wine vessel) with Tray and Ladle
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Celadon Ewer with Chicken-head Spout
    Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)

  • Celadon Jiaodou (warming vessel)
    Eastern Jin to Southern Dynasties (317–589 AD)

  • Eastern Jin to Southern Dynasties (317–589 AD)
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Celadon Cup and Saucer

    Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)

  • Pottery Male Figure
    Three Kingdoms, Shu (221–263 AD)

  • Pottery Male Figures
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Warrior in Xianbei Costume
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Warrior in X ianbei Costume
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

  • Pottery Civil Official
    Western Wei Dynasty (535–556 AD)

  • Painted Pottery Military Official
    Western Wei Dynasty (535–556 AD)

  • Pottery Male Figure in Small Cap, Jacket, and Trousers
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Male Figure
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Female Attendant
    Three Kingdoms, Shu (221–263 AD)

  • Pottery Female Figure
    Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD)

  • Pottery Female Figures
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Pottery Female Official with Longguan High Hat
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Female Figure in Skirt and Silk Shawl
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Female Figure in Han Costume with Double Chignon
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Female Figure in Long Skirt
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

  • Painted Pottery Female Figure with Double Chignon
    Western Wei Dynasty (535–556 AD)

  • Pottery Female Figure in Jacket, and Trousers
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

  • Gold Hat Ornament in the Shape of Horse Head with Antlers
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Gold Hat Ornament in the Shape of Ox Head with Antlers
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Silver Diexie Belt Ornaments
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Bronze Plaque with Bird Design
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Bronze Plaque with Three Deer Design
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Pottery Musicians and Dancer
    Three Kingdoms, Shu (221–263 AD)

  • Pottery Female Singer and Musicians
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Pottery Musician Playing Pipa (string instrument)
    Pottery Musician Playing Pipa (string instrument)

  • Yellow-glazed Porcelain Flask with Music and Dance Scene
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

IV. Culture



The period spanning the Three Kingdoms to the Southern and Northern Dynasties was a time of active cultural interactions. Han traditions continued to flourish as large-scale migrations activated regional cultural exchange. Diverse ethnic customs and the introduction of Buddhism had a stimulating effect on Chinese culture. Chinese civilization was ready to embrace a new era that followed in the Sui and Tang Dynasties.
Black-glazed Pottery Hunping with Pavilion and Buddhas (funerary urn)
Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)
Bronze Mirror with Leaf, Phoenix, and Buddha Design
Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)
Stone Stupa Dedicated by Bai Shuangjie
Sixteen Kingdoms, Northern Liang (401–439 AD)
Stone Avalokitesvara (Guanyin)
Northern Wei Dynasty, 3rd year of Yongxi Era (534 AD)
Two Stone Daoist Figures
Northern Wei Dynasty, 1st year of Longxu Era (527 AD)
Inscribed Brick
Western Jin Dynasty, 4th year of Xianning Era (278 AD)
Brick Painting with Noble Ladies and Female Attendants
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Brick Painting with Phoenix
Porcelain Male Figure & Porcelain Female Figure
Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)
Painted Pottery Warrior with Shield
Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)
Pottery Ox Cart
Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)
  • Sized Paper

    Sixteen Kingdoms, Later Qin, 1st year of Baique Era (384 AD)

  • Paper Fragments Transcribed with Buddhist Sutra
    Sixteen Kingdoms, Northern Liang (401–439 AD)

  • Stamped Bricks Depicting the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove (rubbings)
    Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)

  • Black-glazed Pottery Hunping with Pavilion and Buddhas (funerary urn)
    Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Bronze Mirror with Leaf, Phoenix, and Buddha Design
    Three Kingdoms, Wu (222–280 AD)

  • Stone Stupa Dedicated by Bai Shuangjie
    Sixteen Kingdoms, Northern Liang (401–439 AD)

  • Stone Avalokitesvara (Guanyin)
    Northern Wei Dynasty, 3rd year of Yongxi Era (534 AD)

  • Painted Stone Buddha with Gold Leaf
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

  • Stone Maitreya Dedicated by Han Xiaohua
    Northern Wei Dynasty, 2nd year of Yong’an Era (529 AD)

  • Painted Stone Buddha
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550-577 AD)

  • Zeng Yi A Han Jing Juan (Ekottarikagama Sutra)
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Two Stone Daoist Figures
    Northern Wei Dynasty, 1st year of Longxu Era (527 AD)

  • Stone Daoist Figure Dedicated by Ma Luozi
    Northern Zhou Dynasty, 1st year of Baoding Era (561 AD)

  • Stone Classics Engraved in Three Scripts on Stone Tablet
    Three Kingdoms, Wei, Zhengshi Era (240–249 AD)

  • Shang Zun Hao Stele (rubbing)
    Three Kingdoms, Wei (220–265 AD)

  • Inscribed Brick
    Western Jin Dynasty, 4th year of Xianning Era (278 AD)

  • Calligraphy by Wang Xizhi in Da Guan Tie
    Block-printed edition, Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Cuan Longyan Stele (rubbing)
    Southern Dynasties, Song (420–479 AD)

  • Record of Yang Dayan Building Sculpture for Emperor Xiaowen (rubbing)
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Brick Paintings from Wei and Jin Tombs
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Portrait of Deceased Couple
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Playing Scene
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Archer on Horseback
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Human Figures
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Musician Bo Ya
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Ox Cart
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Girl Fighting a Tiger
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Musician Bo Ya
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Attendants on Horseback
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316)

  • Brick Painting with Water Carrying Scene
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Figure and Small Fort
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Travellers on Ox Cart
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Chicken Killing Scene
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Cooking Scene
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Two Figures
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Figures Playing Music
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Winnowing Scene
    Three Kingdoms, Wei to Western Jin Dynasty (220–316 AD)

  • Horse and Carriage Painting on Paper Pasted to Coffin
    Late Western Jin Dynasty to Sixteen Kingdoms (265–439 AD)

  • Goddess of the Luo River (replica)

    Original attributed to Gu Kaizhi , Eastern Jin Dynasty

  • Brick Reliefs
    Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD)

  • Brick Painting with Two Daoist Immortals

  • Brick Painting with Four Hermits

  • Brick Painting with Warriors and Battle Steeds

  • Brick Painting with Two Mythical Birds

  • Brick Painting with Two Mythical Birds

  • Brick Painting with White Tiger

  • Brick Painting with Musicians

  • Brick Painting with Man Riding a Kylin

  • Brick Painting with Man Leading an Ox

  • Brick Painting with Two Daoist Immortals

  • Brick Painting with Two Celestial Immortals

  • Brick Painting with Two Daoist Immortals and Phoenix

  • Brick Painting with Man Leading a Horse

  • Brick Painting with Deified Tortoise

  • Brick Painting with Warriors

  • Brick Painting with General on Horseback and Attendant

  • Brick Painting with Dragon

  • Brick Painting with Two Celestial Immortals

  • Brick Painting with Two Daoist Immortals

  • Brick Painting with Warriors

  • Brick Painting with Phoenix

  • Brick Painting with Attendants

  • Brick Painting with Musicians

  • Brick Painting with Ox Cart

  • Brick Painting with Two Dragons

  • Brick Painting with Two Celestial Immortals

  • Brick Painting with Attendants

  • Brick Painting with Dancers

  • Porcelain Male Figure
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Porcelain Female Figure
    Western Jin Dynasty (265–316 AD)

  • Pottery Mythical Beast Tomb Guardian
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Painted Pottery Warrior with Shield
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Pottery Camel
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

  • Pottery Ox Cart
    Northern Qi Dynasty (550–577 AD)

  • Pottery Horse
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Warrior
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Pottery Figure with Longguan High Hat
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

  • Arched Stone Gate atYonggu Mausoleum

    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

V. Exchange with Foreign Cultures



From the Three Kingdoms to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, expansion of the Silk Road accelerated China’s contact with the outside world. Foreigners could be found travelling or living in Chinese cities. When they came to China to trade, they brought foreign culture and technology as well. The wide spread of Buddhism also created opportunities for cultural exchange. Furthermore, growth in maritime traffic provided another source of important information about overseas countries.
Glass Cup with Net Pattern
Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Portraits of Foreign Envoys
    Anonymous Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127) copy

  • Silver Ewer
    3rd century AD

  • Green Glass Bowl
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Glass Cup with Net Pattern
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Sasanian Silver Coin
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Gilded Bronze Stem Cup with Inlaid Design
    Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD)

  • Gilded Silver Ewer (replica)
    Northern Zhou Dynasty (557–581 AD)

  • Pottery Head of Man from the Western Regions
    Northern Dynasties (386–581 AD)

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