I. Prehistoric Times II. Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou Dynasties III. Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods IV. Qin and Han Dynasties V. Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties VI. Sui, Tang, and the Five Dynasties VII. Liao, Song, Xixia, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties VIII. Ming and Qing Dynasties

Liao, Song, Xixia, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties

(916–1368)

I. Multi-ethnic Regimes and Unification



A new political pattern began to take shape in the 10th century. The Han people established the Song Dynasty and ruled over lands stretching from the middle and lower Yellow River to the South China Sea. Later they were forced to retreat to the south, but maintained a dominant influence in economic and cultural spheres. In the north, the Qidan, Dangxiang, and Nüzhen peoples set up independent regimes, while the Tubo and Dali Kingdoms governed the southwest. This period of polarized multi-ethnic regimes ended in the 13th century when the Mongols rose up and unified China. Tibet and other regions became part of the Chinese territory. Despite incessant war throughout more than 400 years, communications between ethnic groups kept growing and China maintained close contact with the outside world.
Bronze Plate
Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)

  • Gilded Silver Saddle Ornaments (replicas)
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Bronze Horse Bell
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Gold Mask
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Gilded Silver Crown
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Gilded Silver Boots with Phoenix Design
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Bronze Seal
    Northern Song Dynasty, 6th year of Taipingxingguo Era (981 AD)

  • Bronze Seal
    Northern Song Dynasty, 2nd year of Duangong Era (989 AD)

  • Letter Appointing Min Congzhou as the Director of Criminal Bureau
    Northern Song Dynasty, 5th year of Huangyou Era (1053)

  • Yuanyou Clique Stele (rubbing)
    Southern Song Dynasty, 4th year of Jiading Era (1211)

  • Bronze Seal
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Bronze Pass
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Bronze Waist Pass
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Grey Pottery Kalavinka (architectural ornament)
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Glazed Pottery Kalavinka (architectural ornament)
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Glazed Pottery Chiwen (roof ridge ornament)
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Bronze Mirror with Paired Fish Design
    Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)

  • Gilded Silver Waist Ornament with Crystal, Jade, and Agates
    Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)

  • Bronze Seal
    Jin Dynasty, 12th year of Dading Era (1172)

  • Bronze Seal
    Jin Dynasty, 2nd year of Dading Era (1162)

  • Nüzhen Examination Candidates Stele (rubbing)
    Jin Dynasty, 1st year of Zhengda Era (1224)

  • Four Generals of the Restoration
    Attributed to Liu Songnian (c. 1155–1218), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Portrait of Genghis Khan
    Anonymous, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Portrait of Kublai
    After Portraits of Chinese Emperors

  • Gilded Bronze Seal (replica)
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Jade Seal for the Imperial Buddhist Preceptor
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Emperor Shizu’s Pacification of Yunnan Stele (rubbing)
    Yuan Dynasty, 8th year of Dade Era (1304)

  • Bronze Seal (replica)
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

II. Economy



In the Song Dynasty, the economic centre moved to the south. Tenancy contracts were common in the urban and rural areas. Tenant peasants as well as independent craftsmen and tradesmen increased. As the commercial economy thrived, big cities grew in number and markets in the countryside were widespread. The world’s earliest paper currency was in circulation. The Yuan unification of China ended regional economic fragmentation, restored agricultural production, and revitalized trade and industry.
Fen-qing (lavender-grey) glazed Porcelain Burner, Guan ware
Southern Song Dynasty (?1127-1279AD?)
Green-glazed Porcelain Vase with Tubular Lugs, Guan Ware
Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)
Brown-glazed Porcelain Flask with Carved Floral Design
Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)
White-glazed Porcelain Pillow with Incised Honeysuckle Design
Jin Dynasty (?1115-1234AD?)
Porcelain Dish, Shufu Ware
Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)
Porcelain Vase with Dragon-shaped Handles and Openwork Stand, Jun Ware
Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)
White-glazed Porcelain Jar with Children Playing, Cizhou Ware
Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)
Zhiyuan tongxing baochao (paper currency)
Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)
Bronze Weight
Northern Song Dynasty, 1st year of Jiayou Era (1056)

  • Stone Engravings after Farming and Weaving
    Qing Dynasty, 34th year of Qianlong Era (1769)

  • Stone Engravings after Farming and Weaving (rubbings)

  • Nong Shu (Book on Agriculture)
    By Wang Zhen (1271–1368), Yuan Dynasty

  • Lavender-grey-glazed Porcelain Incense Burner, Guan Ware
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Porcelain Dish with Copper-plated Rim, Ge Ware
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Porcelain Incense Burner with Fish-shaped Handles, Ge Ware
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Porcelain Brush-washer, Ru Ware
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • White-glazed Porcelain Bowl with Incised Lotus Design, Ding Ware
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Rose-violet-glazed Porcelain Flowerpot, Jun Ware
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Rose-violet-glazed Porcelain Brush Washer, Jun Ware
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Lavender-grey-glazed Porcelain Vase with Embossed Floral Design, Longquan Ware
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Green-glazed Porcelain Vase with Tubular Lugs, Longquan Ware
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Green-glazed Porcelain Vase with Incised Floral Design, Yaozhou Ware
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • White-glazed Porcelain Vase with Black Floral Design, Cizhou Ware
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Porcelain Bowl with Tortoiseshell Glaze, Jizhou Ware
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Porcelain Bottle with Sea Wave Design, Jizhou Ware
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • White-glazed Porcelain Dish with Dragon Design, Ding Ware
    Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)

  • Porcelain Brush Washer with Inscription
    Jin Dynasty, 2nd year of Da’an Era (1201)

  • Porcelain Bottle, Yuci Ware
    Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)

  • Porcelain Pillow with Tortoiseshell Glaze
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Sancai-glazed Porcelain Flask
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Green-glazed Porcelain Vase
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Yellow-glazed Porcelain Vase with Long Neck
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Sancai-glazed Porcelain Dish with Stamped Fish Design
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Sancai-glazed Porcelain Dish with Stamped Peony Design
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Green-glazed Porcelain Flask
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Brown-glazed Porcelain Flask
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Brown-glazed Vase with Carved and Incised Peony Design
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Blue-and-white Porcelain Bottle with Cloud and Dragon Design
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Blue-and-white Porcelain Vase with Plantain Leaf Design
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Underglaze Red Porcelain Figure
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Bluish-white-glazed Porcelain Bowl with Veiled Floral Design, Shufu Ware
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Green-glazed Porcelain Vase with Intertwined Peony Design, Longquan Ware
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Green-glazed Porcelain Vase with Chrysanthemum Design, Longquan Ware
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Sky-blue-glazed Porcelain Jar in the Shape of Peach, Jun Ware
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Greenish-glazed Porcelain Incense Burner
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Copperplate for Printing Huizi (paper currency)
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Copperplate for Printing Xingding Baoquan (paper currency)
    Jin Dynasty, 2nd year of Xingding Era (1218)

  • Copperplate for Printing Zhiyuan Tongxing Baochao (paper currency)
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Wooden Carpenter’s Square
    Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)

  • Melon-shaped Bronze Weight
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Bronze Weight
    Yuan Dynasty, 8th year of Dade Era (1304)

  • Bronze Weight
    Yuan Dynasty, 1st year of Huangqing Era (1312)

  • Bronze Weight
    Yuan Dynasty, 3rd year of Yanyou Era (1316)

  • Bronze Weight
    Yuan Dynasty, 1st year of Taiding Era (1324)

III. Society and Lifestyle



The growth of cities had a great impact on society and lifestyle during the period from the Liao and Song to the Yuan Dynasty. The rise in city residents accelerated a boom in urban commerce and culture. Higher standards for everyday consumption linked the market to daily necessities and a demand for more exquisite and diverse products. Entertainment was commercialized and available to the commoners. At the same time, religious pluralism grew.
Glazed Brick from Po Pagoda
Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)
Stone Relief with Paired Phoenix and Qilin Design
Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)
Copperplate for Printing Needle Shop Advertisement
Song Dynasty (960–1279)
Bronze Mirror Inscribed by the Shi Family
Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)
Silver Pot with Fish Scale Pattern
Liao Dynasty (916–1125)
Bronze Mirror with Scene from Story of Liu Yi
Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)
Brick Relief with Female Washing Dishes
Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)
Brick Relief with Female Washing Dishes
Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)
Brick Relief with Female Washing Dishes
Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)
Rose-violet-glazed Porcelain Flowerpot, Jun ware
Song Dynasty (?960-1279AD?)
Misty-blue-glazed Porcelain Ewer with Warming Bowl
Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)
Bronze Mirror with Puppet Show
Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Brick from the Dongjing City Wall
    Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)

  • Brick with Dragon Design from Kaibao Temple Pagoda
    Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)

  • Bian River Boat (model)
    Based on Life along the Bian River at the Qingming Festival (by Zhang Zeduan, Northern Song Dynasty)

  • Stone Balustrade Panel with Dragon Design
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Animal-shaped Tile Ridge Ornament
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Brick with Carved Floral Design
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Rafts at the Lugou Bridge
    Anonymous, Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Rafts at the Lugou Bridge (replica)
    Anonymous, Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Silver Dish with Cherry Blossom Design and Craftsman’s Mark
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Silver Dish with Flowering Hydrangea Design and Craftsman’s Mark
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Bronze Mirror Inscribed by the Shi Family
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Sunflower-shaped Bronze Mirror with Workshop’s Mark
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Gilded Silver Flask with Deer Design
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Bronze Mirror with Four Phoenixes and Inscription
    Liao Dynasty, 7th year of Qiantong Era (1107)

  • Gilded Silver Spittoon with Floral Design
    Liao Dynasty, 4th year of Huitong Era (941 AD)

  • Lobed Lacquer Box
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Lacquer Cosmetic Box Set
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Lacquer Bowl
    Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)

  • Gold Ornamental Plaque with Lychee Design
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Lacquer Cosmetic Box with Carved Design
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Lacquer Bowl Inscribed with Phagspa Script
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Brick Relief with Female Preparing Fish
    Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)

  • Silver Cup with Twenty-five Lobes
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Silver Ewer Incised with Floral Design and Warming Bowl
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Painted Brick Reliefs with Couple Holding a Banquet
    Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)

  • Misty-blue-glazed Porcelain Ewer with Warming Bowl
    Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Silver Bowls with Spouts
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Silver Bottle
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Brick Relief with Ding Dusai
    Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)

  • Bronze Mirror with Figures Playing Cuju
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Pottery Flute Player
    Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)

  • Pottery Figure Striking Clappers
    Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)

  • Wooden Avalokitesvara (Guanyin)
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Bronze Mahavairocana
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Gilded Bronze Akshobhya(Motionless Buddha)
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Jade Tablet of Daoist Qingwei School Inlaid with Gold
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Jade Daoist Tablets with Red Paint
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Nestorian Bronze Emblems
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

IV. Foreign Trade and Transportation



The period from the Liao and Song to the Yuan Dynasty witnessed unprecedented expansion in overseas trade and foreign relations that strengthened economic and cultural connections between China and other Asian, European, and African countries.
Iron “Magic Square” with Eastern Arabic Numerals
Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Courier’s Silver Tally
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Xuan He Feng Shi Gao Li Tu Jing (Illustrated Record of the Diplomatic Mission to Koryo in the Xuanhe Era)
    By Xu Jing (1091–1153), Song Dynasty

  • Zhu Fan Zhi (Record of Foreign Countries)
    By Zhao Rushi (1170–1231), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Ling Wai Dai Da (Answers to Questions about Lingnan)
    By Zhou Qufei (dates unknown), Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)

  • Xi Shi Ji (Travels to the West)
    By Liu Yu (dates unknown), Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Dao Yi Zhi Lue (Record of Exotic Lands)
    By Wang Dayuan (1311–?), Yuan Dynasty

  • Zhen La Feng Tu Ji (Local Customs of Zhenla)
    By Zhou Daguan (c. 1266–1346), Yuan Dynasty

  • Objects Discovered from South China Sea No.1 Shipwreck of the Southern Song Dynasty

  • Bluish-white-glazed Porcelain Ewer

  • Bluish-white-glazed Porcelain Bowl

  • Bluish-white-glazed Porcelain Dish with Leaf Vein Design

  • Bluish-white-glazed Porcelain Bowl with Children Playing

  • Green-glazed Thick-bodied Porcelain Dish

  • Bluish-white-glazed Porcelain Ewer with Animal Head

  • Bronze Mirror with Sailing Ship Design
    Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Southern Song Ship (model)
    Reconstructed on a 1:20 scale by Quanzhou Maritime Museum

  • Yuan Porcelain Vase Unearthed in Kenya

  • Stone Tablet with Inscription about Diplomatic Mission to Persia (rubbing)
    Original unearthed at Nanjiaochang, Quanzhou, Fujian Province, 1953

V. Culture



Culture flourished in the Song Dynasty and grew increasingly diverse in the Yuan Dynasty. This period saw a proliferation of great masters and important works in philosophy, literature, historiography, and art. Some ethnic groups established their own written languages. In the areas of astronomy, mathematics, medical science, gunpowder, printing, compass, and shipbuilding, China led the world. As this knowledge was transmitted to other countries along the Silk Road, contributions were made considerably to world science and technology.
A Letter to Jingliang
By Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322), Yuan Dynasty
Stream and Mountains in the Rain
By Huang Gongwang (1269–1354), Yuan Dynasty
Bronze Water Clock
Yuan Dynasty, 3rd year of Yanyou Era (1316)
Bronze Figure Model for Acupuncture and Moxibustion
Ming Dynasty, 8th year of Zhengtong Era (1443)

  • Manuscript of a Letter
    By Zhu Xi (1130–1200), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Manuscript of Zi Zhi Tong Jian (Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government)
    By Sima Guang (1019–1086), Northern Song Dynasty

  • Tong Jian Ji Shi Ben Mo (Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government, Arranged by Events)
    By Yuan Shu (1131–1205), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Kao Gu Tu (An Illustrated Study of Antiquities)
    By Lü Dalin (1040–1092), Northern Song Dynasty

  • Yuan Chao Mi Shi (Secret History of the Yuan Dynasty)
    Anonymous, middle 13th century

  • Ou Yang Wen Zhong Wen Ji (Collected Works of Ouyang Xiu)
    By Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), Northern Song Dynasty

  • Dong Po Ji (Collected Works of Su Shi)
    By Su Shi (1037–1101), Northern Song Dynasty

  • Jian Nan Shi Gao (Poems at Jiannan)
    By Lu You (1125–1210), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Jia Xuan Chang Duan Ju (Long and Short Sentences by Xin Qiji)
    By Xin Qiji (1140–1207), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Bai Shi Dao Ren Ge Qu (Rhymes and Melodies by Jiang Kui)
    By Jiang Kui (c. 1155–1221), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Yan Men Ji (Collected Works of Yanmen)
    By Sadula (active 14th century), Yuan Dynasty

  • Xi Xiang Ji Zhu Gong Diao (Romance of the Western Chamber as Zhugongdiao)

    By Dong Jieyuan (dates unknown), Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)

  • Dou E Yuan (Injustice to Dou E)
    By Guan Hanqing (dates unknown), Yuan Dynasty (1297–1308)

  • Xi Xiang Ji (Romance of the Western Chamber)
    By Wang Shifu (dates unknown), Yuan Dynasty (1297–1308)

  • Fan Han He Shi Zhang Zhong Zhu (A Xixia-Chinese Timely Pocket Dictionary)
    By Gulemaocai (dates unknown), Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Fragment of Stone Tablet with Xixia Script
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Aotun Liangbi’s Farewell Banquet Stele and Rubbing
    Jin Dynasty, 6th year of Taihe Era (1206)

  • One Hundred Chinese Surnames in Phagspa Script
    From Shi Lin Guang Ji (by Chen Yuanliang, Southern Song Dynasty)

  • Zhuo Ai Tie in Running Script
    Calligraphy by Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), Northern Song Dynasty

  • Ku Han Tie in Running Script
    Calligraphy by Lu You (1125–1210), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Qu Guo Tie in Running Script
    Calligraphy by Xin Qiji (1140–1207), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Stone Carved Inkstone
    Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)

  • The Nine Songs
    Anonymous, Song Dynasty (960–1279)

  • Watering and Feeding Horses
    By Ren Renfa (1254–1337), Yuan Dynasty

  • Dwelling Near Water and Bamboo
    By Ni Zan (1301–1374), Yuan Dynasty

  • Zhong and Lü Discussing Daoism
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Meng Xi Bi Tan (Essays at Mengxi)

    By Shen Kuo (1031–1095), Northern Song Dynasty

  • Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao (Essentials of New Design for the Armillary Sphere and Celestial Globe)
    By Su Song (1020–1101), Northern Song Dynasty

  • Water-powered Astronomical Clock Tower (model)

  • Star Chart Stele (rubbing)
    Southern Song Dynasty, 7th year of Chunyou Era (1247)

  • Shu Shu Jiu Zhang (Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections)
    By Qin Jiushao (1202–1261), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Sakyamuni Pagoda (model)
    Based on the original at Fogong Temple, Yingxian, Shanxi Province

  • Glazed Pottery Makara (roof ridge ornament)
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Pottery Mythical Beast (roof ridge ornament)
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Stone Carving and rubbing of Illustrated Manual about Acupoints Indicated on Recently Cast Bronze Figures
    Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)

  • Xiao Er Yao Zheng Zhen Jue (Key to Diagnosis and Treatment of Children’s Diseases)
    By Qian Yi (c. 1032–1113), Northern Song Dynasty

  • Xi Yuan Lu (Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified)
    By Song Ci (1186–1249), Southern Song Dynasty

  • Revised Classified Materia Medica for Emergence from Historical Classics in the Zhenghe Era
    Revised Classified Materia Medica for Emergence from Historical Classics in the Zhenghe Era

  • Tejaprabha (Light-emitting) Buddha and the Nine Luminaries (replica)
    Liao Dynasty (916–1125)

  • Page from Buddhist Sutra in Xixia Script
    Xixia Dynasty (1038–1227)

  • Wooden Movable Types in Uighur Script (replicas)
    Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)

  • Pottery Caltrops with Gunpowder
    Yuan and Ming Dynasties (13th–14th centuries)

  • Bronze Cannon
    Yuan Dynasty, 3rd year of Zhishun Era (1332)

  • Suspension Compass (model)

  • Floating Compass (model)

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