I. Prehistoric Times II. Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou Dynasties III. Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods IV. Qin and Han Dynasties V. Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties VI. Sui, Tang, and the Five Dynasties VII. Liao, Song, Xixia, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties VIII. Ming and Qing Dynasties

Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods

(770–221 BC)

I. Rival States and the Seven Powers



In 770 BC, King Ping moved the Zhou capital to Luoyi (present-day Luoyang, Henan Province), an event marking the start of the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods. This was an era of active thought, ethnic interaction, and political transformation. Rivalry between states during the Spring and Autumn Period had a dramatic impact on the political order established in the Western Zhou. In the Warring States Period, campaigns launched by the Seven Powers to overthrow and annex smaller states stabilized the inter-regional political and economic situation. This gradually laid the foundation for the unification and centralized government that emerged in the Qin Dynasty.
“Ling” Bronze Bo (percussion instrument)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Qi State
“Huanzi Mengjiang” Bronze Hu (wine vessel)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Qi State
“Qin Gong” Bronze Gui (food container)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Qin State
Bird-shaped Bronze Ding (food container)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Yan State
“Cai Hou Shen” Bronze Fanghu (wine vessel)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Cai State
“Linghu Jun Sizi” Bronze Hu (wine vessel)
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Han State
“Xiong Han” Bronze Ding (food container)
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State
“Luan Shu” Bronze Fou (wine vessel)
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State
“Guo Taizi Yuantu” Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Guo State
Bronze Ge (dagger-axe) with Brocade Design
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State
Bronze Ji (halberd) with Three Ge (dagger-axe)
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Zeng State

  • Set of Bronze Ding (food container)
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Jin State

  • BronzeHu (wine vessel) with Animal-shaped Handles
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Jin State

  • “Wangzi Wu” Bronze Ding (food container)
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Chu State

  • “Wu Wang Guang” Bronze Jian (water container)

    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Wu State

  • “Wu Wang Fuchai” Bronze Jian (water container)
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Wu State

  • “Wangzi Yingci” Bronze Brazier

    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Zheng State

  • Bronze He (wine vessel) with Gold Inlay
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Han State

  • “Xiang’an Jun” Bronze Bianhu (wine vessel)

    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Yan State

  • “Chu Gao” Bronze Fou (water container)

    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State


  • Gilded Silver Pan (water container)

    Warring States Period, Qin State, 33rd year of Zhao Wang’s reign (274 BC)

  • Bronze Seal

    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qi State

  • “Wu Wang Guang” Bronze Sword
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Wu State

  • “Wu Wang Fuchai” Bronze Sword

    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Wu State

  • Bronze Sword

    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Chu State

  • “Song Gong Luan” Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Song State

  • “Teng Hou Ze” Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)

    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Teng State

  • “Zheng Youku” Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Han State

  • “Yan Hou Zai” Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)
    “Yan Hou Zai” Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)

     

  • “Yan Wang Rongren” Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Yan State

  • “Yan Wang” Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Yan State

  • Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Han State

  • Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qin State

  • Bronze Ge (dagger-axe)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qin State

  • Bronze Spearhead with Inscription
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Han State

  • Bronze Crossbow Trigger Inlaid with Silver
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

II. Economy and Life



In the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods, political reforms introduced in various states accelerated regional economic growth. Wide use of iron tools increased agricultural yields and promoted handicrafts and trade. By the middle of Warring States Period, capitals that originally functioned as political and military centres of the states developed into industrial and commercial cities.
Iron Mould for Two Sickles；Iron Mould for Two Chisels
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Yan State
Pottery Mould for Standing Figure
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Jin State
Pottery Model for Animal Head
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Jin State
Bronze Axe
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC)
Horsehead-shaped Bronze Chariot Ornament Inlaid with Gold and Silver
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Wei State
Bronze Hu (wine vessel) with Copper-inlaid Hunting Design
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Yan State
Bronze Containers with Openwork Animal Design
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State
Bronze Mirror with Openwork Panchi (intertwined dragons) Design
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State
Bronze Mirror with Warriors Fighting Leopards
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qin State
Bronze Zhan (food container)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Chu State
Bronze Fou (wine vessel)
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Zeng State
Bronze Bingjian (wine cooler)
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Zeng State
Gilded Silver Belt Hook Inlaid with Jade and Coloured Glaze
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Wei State
“Gan You” Silver Yi (water container)
Warring States Period (403–221 BC)
Jade Huang (semicircle) with Cloud and Animal Design
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Wei State
Proto-celadon Hu (vessel) with Dragon Handle
Warring States Period (403–221 BC)
Bronze Architectural Component
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qin State


Steelyard and Bronze Ring Weights
Steelyard and Bronze Ring Weights
Bronze Weighing Rods Inscribed with Character “King”
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State
“Zi Hezi” Bronze Fu (measuring cauldron)
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qi State
Bronze Tallies with Gold-inlaid Inscriptions
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State
Bronze Fanghu (wine vessel)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Jin State
“Zeng Zhong Youfu” Bronze Fanghu (wine vessel)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Zeng State
“Lu Bo Dafu” Bronze Gui (food container)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Lu State
“Xue Zi Zhong’an” Bronze Hu (food container)
“Xue Zi Zhong’an” Bronze Hu (food container)
Animal-shaped Bronze Zun (wine vessel)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC)
Bronze Lamp with Standing Figure and Ladle
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qi State
Silver-inlaid Bronze Mat Weight in the Shape of Reclining Ox
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State
Bronze Mirror with Slanted-T-shaped Design
Warring States Period (403–221 BC)
Bronze Mirror with Mythical Beasts and Scalloped Edge
Warring States Period (403–221 BC)
Winged Lacquer Cup
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Zeng State

  • Iron Sword with Bronze Handle
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Qin State

  • Iron Sword with Golden Guard and Pommel
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Jin State

  • Iron Mould for Chariot Part
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Yan State

  • Iron Mould for Hoe
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Yan State

  • Iron Spade Edge

    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Wei State

  • Iron Pickaxe
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Wei State

  • Iron Sickle；Iron Hoe；Iron Chisel；Iron Adze
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Yan State
  • Iron Hammer
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State

  • Iron Chisel
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State

  • Pottery Mould for Ding (vessel)

    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Jin State

  • Pottery Mould for Adze
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Jin State

  • Bronze Warriors
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Zhao State

  • Bronze Buckle Inlaid with Silver
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Bronze Hu (wine vessel) with Copper-inlaid Bird and Animal Design
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Dai State

  • Bronze Fang (wine vessel) Inlaid with Turquoise

    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)


  • Jade Bi (disc)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Zeng State

  • Jade Sword Ornament
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Dragon-shaped Jade Ornaments
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State

  • Woven Fabric Fragments
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State

  • Brocade with Dancer, Dragon, and Phoenix Design (replica)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State

  • Painted Pottery Hu (vessel) with Animal-shaped Ears
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Yan State

  • Roof Tile-end with Clouds Design
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Roof Tile-end with Tree and Two Animals
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qi State

  • Roof Tile-end with Mountain-like Design ；Roof Tile-end with Taotie (mythical beast head) Design； Roof Tile-end with Paired Dragons Design
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Yan State

  • Roof Tile with Fufu Design
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Yan State

  • “Sima Chenggong” Bronze Weight
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • “Gong Ou” Pottery Measuring Bowl
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qi State

  •  “Gong Dou” Pottery Measuring Bowl
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qi State

  • “Yangcheng” Pottery Measuring Bowl
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Han State

  • “Shang Yang”  Bronze Rectangular Measuring Utensil
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qin State

     

  • Tiger-shaped Bronze Tally with Inscriptions
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State

  • “Chen Hou” BronzeHu (wine vessel)
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Chen State

  • Bronze Lei (wine vessel) with Tiger-shaped Knob
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Zheng State

  • “Cai Hou Shen” Bronze Ding (food container)
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Cai State

  • “Qi Bo” Bronze Gui (food container)
    “Qi Bo” Bronze Gui (food container)

  • Bronze Pan (water container) with Dragon and Tiger Design
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Yan State

  • “Xu Wang Yichu” Bronze Guanpan (washbasin)
    “Xu Wang Yichu” Bronze Guanpan (washbasin)

  • “Qi Hou Zi Xing” Bronze Yi (water container)
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Qi State
  • Bronze Yi (water container) with Needle-incised Figure and Building Design

    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Set of Bronze Cups
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qin State

  • Bronze Belt Hook with Silver Knob and Gold and Turquoise Inlay
    Gilded Bronze Belt Hook Inlaid with Turquoise and Agate
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Black Lacquer Elbow Rest with Painted with Vermillion Floral Design；Lacquer Dish Painted with Vermillion Cloud Design
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Bronze Pliers
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Qin State

     

III. Culture



Enormous cultural change took place during the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods when educated scholars began lecturing, attracting disciples, writing books, and establishing various schools of thought. Confucianism founded by Kongzi (Confucius) and Mohism founded by Mozi were the most famous schools and had the largest following. Confucians and Mohists argued freely about politics and philosophical issues with the Daoists, Legalists, Logicians, and Yin-Yang School. Within scholarly circles this became known as the period of active contending of the “Hundred Schools of Thought”. As a result of the vigorous intellectual debate, progress was accelerated in literature, historiography, art, and science and the Chinese civilization entered a new era of achievement.
Set of Bronze Zhong (percussion instrument)
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State

  • Lun Yu (Analects of Confucius)
    Block-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Meng Zi (Book of Mencius)
    Block-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Xun Zi (Book of Xunzi)

    Block-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Mo Zi (Book of Mozi)
    Block-printed edition, Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)

  • Zhuang Zi (Book of Zhuangzi)
    Block-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Han Fei Zi (Book of Hanfeizi)
    Blocked-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Sun Zi Bing Fa (Sunzi’s Art of War) (replica)
    Hand-copied on bamboo slips, Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD)

     

  • Sun Bin Bing Fa (Sun Bin’s Art of War) (replica)
    Hand-copied on bamboo slips, Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD)

  • Lü Shi Chun Qiu (Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals)
    Block-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Guan Zi (Book of Guanzi)
    Block-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Shi Jing (Book of Songs)
    Block-printed edition, from Song Dynasty(960-1279) to Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Chu Ci (Songs of Chu)
    Block-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Zuo Zhuan (Zuo’s Chronicle)
    Block-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Shan Hai Jing (Classic of the Mountains and Seas)
    Block-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

     

  • Ling Shu and Su Wen
    Block-printed edition, Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

  • Man Driving a Dragon (replica)
    After silk painting unearthed from Warring States Period tomb of Chu State at Changsha, Hunan Province, 1973

  • Set of Stone Qing (percussion instrument)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Wei State

  • “Zhu Gong Hua” Bronze Zhong (percussion instrument)
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Zhu State

  • Bronze Bo (percussion instrument) with Animal-shaped Handle
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Zheng State

  • Writing Brush
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Chu State

IV. Ethnic Cultures



In the Spring and Autumn Period, the people of the Central Plains called themselves the “Zhuxia”, while the tribes on the peripheries were referred to as the Man, Yi, Rong, or Di. As communications between the people of the Central Plains and neighbouring tribes grew during the late Spring and Autumn and the early Warring States Periods, most of the Man, Yi, Rong, and Di tribes gradually mixed with the Zhuxia. This laid the foundation for the establishment of a unified multi-ethnic country.
Bronze Sword with Wavy Blades
Upper Xiajiadian Culture (c. 1000–300 BC)
Gold Plaque with Wolves Biting Ox
Warring States Period (403–221 BC)
Bronze Zun (wine vessel)
Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC)
Bronze Pan (water container) with Three Wheels
Bronze Pan (water container) with Three Wheels
Boot-shaped Bronze Yue (battle-axe)
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Baiyue
Bronze Zheng (percussion instrument) with Tiger Design
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Shu State
Rhinoceros-shaped Bronze Belt Hook Inlaid with Gold and Silver
Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Ba State

  • Bronze Scabbard for Two Swords
    Upper Xiajiadian Culture (c. 1000–300 BC)

  • Short Bronze Sword with Deer Design
    Upper Xiajiadian Culture (c. 1000–300 BC)

  • Bronze Dou (food container)
    Upper Xiajiadian Culture (c. 1000–300 BC)

  • Bronze Helmet
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Gold Plaque Inlaid with Gemstones

    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Bronze Sword
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Bronze Axe in the Shape of Crane’s Beak
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Bronze Ornament in the Shape of Kneeling Deer
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Deer-shaped Bronze Ornament
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Bronze Ornament in the Shape of Crouching Horse
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Bronze Chariot Ornaments in the Shape of Parrot and Hedgehog Head
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC)

  • Bronze Chunyu (percussion instrument)
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC)

  • Bronze You (wine vessel) with Loop Handle
    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC)

     

  • Bronze Zun (wine vessel) with Frog and Snake Design

    Spring and Autumn Period (770–403 BC), Baiyue

  • Animal-shaped Bronze Zun (wine vessel)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Baiyue

  • Bronze Object with Openwork Cloud Design

    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Baiyue

  • Bronze Ding (food container) with Dish-shaped Rim
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Baiyue

  • Boot-shaped Bronze Knife
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Baiyue

  • Bronze Spearhead
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Baiyue

  • Bronze Short Sword
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Baiyue

  • Bronze Spearhead with Two Ears
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Baiyue

  • Bronze Spearhead with Single Ear
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Baiyue

  • Bronze Bars with Human Heads
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Baiyue

  • Bronze Lei (wine vessel)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Shu

  • Bronze Fuzeng (steamer)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Shu State

  • Bronze Tools
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Shu State

     

  • Animal-shaped Bronze Belt Hook
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Shu State

  • Jade Bi (disc)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Shu State

  • Jade Sword Ornaments
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Shu State

  • Bronze Sword with Tiger Design
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Ba State

  • Bronze Sword
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Ba State

  • Bronze Yue (battle-axe)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Ba State

  • Bronze Sword with W-shaped Guard
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Xi’nanyi

  • Bronze Yue (battle-axe)
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Xi’nanyi

  • Bronze Spearhead
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Xi’nanyi

  • Bronze Hoe Heads
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Xi’nanyi

  • Whetstone
    Warring States Period (403–221 BC), Xi’nanyi

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